Prepared
by Dena Ringold | July 2005
with funding from the sponsors of the Ian Axford (New Zealand) Fellowships
in Public Policy
Dena Ringold is a senior economist in
the Human Development Sector Unit for the Europe and Central Asia
Region at The World Bank in Washington DC. She has been involved in
various aspects of the operations, analysis and strategy development
for the Roma Work Program; the Serbia and Montenegro and Bosnia and
Herzegovina Social Protection; the Slovakia Social Development Fund;
and the Cambodia Social Protection Strategy. Prior to this she was
an Economist and a Research Analyst.
Dena was based at Te Puni Kokiri, the Ministry of Maori Development,
where she worked on a project titled Managing for Maori Outcomes in
New Zealand: Policy-making in a multi-ethnic context. She looked at
how policies in New Zealand are designed to close gaps in human development
outcomes for Maori while taking into account their unique culture.
She also looked at how New Zealand strikes a balance between policies
which are targeted and specifically designed to take into account
characteristics of Maori communities (such as language in education),
with broad-based policy measures that bring Maori into mainstream
social service networks. |
Executive Summary
Building on Successes
Maori are the indigenous people of New Zealand. They make up a relatively
small population - of approximately 620,000 - within a relatively small
country. But their contributions in New Zealand, and internationally,
are substantial. During my short six-month stay in New Zealand, Maori
competed at the Academy Awards, won the US Open golf tournament, rose
to the top of the Australian banking sector, and beat the touring British
and Irish Lions at rugby.
Beyond the achievements of these extraordinarily talented individuals
and teams, Maori as a whole have made impressive gains across the economic,
cultural and social spectrum of New Zealand in recent decades. Maori unemployment
is, at 8 percent, at a record low; more Maori go to school than ever before;
and there has been a cultural renaissance.
But not all Maori are benefiting from these upward trends. Some remain
unemployed or in low-wage, unskilled jobs that leave them vulnerable to
economic shocks. One third of Maori finish their education without any
kind of formal qualifications. Maori remain disproportionately poor, with
child poverty a particular concern. Persistent gaps in health status remain.
The overall picture shows both increasing diversity and increasing socioeconomic
inequality within the Maori population.
The Minister of Maori Affairs, Hon Parekura Horomia, has argued that
Maori have a window of opportunity over the next five years to build on
the achievements of past decades. Further investments in human capital
are needed to raise education and skill levels so that Maori can continue
to seize opportunities in New Zealand's growing, globalised, and knowledge-based
economy. Since Maori are fully integrated within the New Zealand economy,
their success depends on overall economic conditions. Maori must be well-positioned
to move into sustainable jobs provided by existing labour and skills gaps.
Realizing Maori Potential
Recent approaches to Maori development provide a valuable record of experience
and experimentation for policy-makers in New Zealand and other countries.
Several key themes have characterized policy developments over the past
two decades, including: a desire by Maori to take charge of their own
development; an on-going interest in self-determination, autonomy, and
involvement in the policies and programmes that affect them; a recognition
that policy approaches need to consider the history, culture and position
of Maori as the indigenous people of New Zealand; and a need to tackle
socioeconomic disparities between Maori and non-Maori.
At the level of policy design and service delivery, New Zealand has sought
to calibrate the extent to which policies should be universal, mainstreamed,
and applicable to the entire society, and the extent to which they should
be targeted to specific populations. These central questions are directly
relevant for other countries - developed and developing nations alike
- that aim to improve the welfare of their own indigenous peoples, ethnic
minorities, and vulnerable groups.
Increasingly, the results suggest that both are needed: inclusive policies
that reach all New Zealanders, and policies that recognize the cultural
distinctness and particular needs of Maori. Te Puni Kokiri's (the Ministry
of Maori Development) new Maori Potential Framework is distinctive for
its emphasis on lifting Maori success, rather than ameliorating failure,
while at the same time recognizing the culture and aspirations of Maori
as individuals and collectives.
Targeting and Tailoring Services to Maori
Policies can be both targeted, where ethnicity defines an individual's
eligibility to participate in a programme or receive a benefit, and tailored,
if they are designed to take into consideration the needs and preferences
of specific groups. Ethnic targeting may prove effective in some cases,
especially if ethnicity - on its own, or in combination with other factors
- provides useful information on how to get resources to those who need
them.
But decisions about targeting also need to weigh the potential costs
and benefits - fiscal, social, and political. Considerations include the
particular objectives of the programme itself, and the availability, quality,
and costs of collecting ethnic data. Finally, increasing internal diversity
of Maori means that targeting to Maori as a group may not be sufficient
for meeting policy objectives, and more nuanced approaches which respond
to this increasing diversity may be required.
While few policies in New Zealand are targeted to Maori, significant
effort has gone into tailoring policies to Maori, to make them more accessible,
effective, and responsive. This has been done through devolution and decentralization
of service delivery to communities; the participation of Maori themselves
in service delivery and governance; strengthened outreach and communication;
and incorporation of Maori culture into service delivery. Lessons from
this sort of tailoring can influence further policy development, both
in New Zealand and abroad.
The distinction between targeted Maori-focused programmes and mainstream
approaches is no longer clear-cut. Separate tailored services are now
available, and mainstream services incorporate aspects of tailoring. Getting
these endeavours right is crucial as the majority of Maori participate
in mainstream services.
Alternative Maori services have influenced mainstream service delivery.
The emergence of separate Maori services, such as Maori immersion schools
and Maori health providers, has been an important development. These alternative
services provide relatively limited coverage (e.g. 80-90 percent of Maori
participate in mainstream education and health services), but their impact
has been far-reaching. They have given Maori opportunities to develop
approaches based on their own priorities and culture, provided examples
for mainstream services about incorporating diversity, highlighted the
shortcomings of mainstream services, and built the capacity and capability
of Maori organisations and service professionals.
Non-Maori benefit from tailoring. Diversification of services
has also increased choice for many, both Maori and non-Maori. Non-Maori
have also benefited from policy innovations developed by and for Maori,
both through accessing these services, and from the ways in which these
services have influenced mainstream policy design. More lessons from these
approaches can be identified and scaled-up into mainstream services.
Quality is important. Tailoring can improve access. It also has
the potential to raise effectiveness and quality. Despite gains, there
is still considerable progress to be made in improving outcomes of Maori,
and understanding what works in policy design. A greater focus on evaluation
of the medium and longer-term outcomes of tailored services would improve
policy.
Equity issues require attention. While an improved labour market
and greater economic opportunities have increased Maori welfare, not all
Maori are benefiting. Services need to be designed to be inclusive and
reach Maori who may be poor and excluded. Similarly, while service delivery
by iwi and Maori organisations has increased choice and opportunities
for some Maori, these services are not evenly distributed, leaving some
without access.
Capacity building is needed to make institutions work. Increased
opportunities for Maori to participate on boards including those of schools,
district health boards, trusts, and other entities have been important.
Capacity building is essential for these governance and partnership arrangements
to work, and to increase accountability and transparency. Building such
capacities takes time.
Political economy issues need managing. As in other countries,
issues of targeting and tailoring by ethnicity in New Zealand are politically
sensitive. Better information about the actual level of targeted spending,
eligibility criteria, and the rationales for targeting and tailoring could
improve understanding and acceptance across the population.
Improving Information and Evaluation
The New Zealand experience confirms that good data can influence policy.
Efforts to improve the collection of ethnic data have expanded the availability
and quality of information regarding Maori, raised awareness of the issues
faced by Maori across sectors, and highlighted priority policy areas.
Data Collection and Analysis
Administrative and survey data require more focus on quality and consistency
across data sources. In other areas, data gaps persist, particularly regarding
poverty, living standards, and expenditures on Maori policies and programmes.
Poverty and living standards. Data on poverty and living standards
among Maori in New Zealand are not readily available. The increasing diversity
of the Maori population means that policy-makers need data that can capture
differences between Maori individuals and groups, inform policy design,
and measure policy outcomes.
Expenditures on Maori. New Zealand does not collect aggregate
data on spending on Maori programmes and policies by government departments.
But such data are important for monitoring the effectiveness of programmes
and policies intended to raise outcomes of Maori and other population
groups. They are also needed to assess the effectiveness of programmes,
perform distributional analyses of public spending, increase transparency,
boost accountability, and raise public awareness.
Evaluation of Outcomes
New Zealand needs an ongoing process of evaluating what works. The government
has made evaluation of outcomes a priority through the Managing for Outcomes
accountability framework. But evaluations are technically difficult, often
expensive, and not always well done. There is growing demand from policy-makers,
providers, and beneficiaries to know what works and why in improving Maori
outcomes.
There is a need to be strategic and selective about evaluation. For reasons
of cost-effectiveness and time, it remains impossible to evaluate every
small programme. Rather, it will be more valuable to select programmes
for evaluation which offer the richest learning for subsequent policy
design, group evaluations together, and invest in larger-scale evaluations
that allow for comparisons.
In cases where quantitative data is difficult to collect or unreliable,
qualitative data can provide useful additional information. Using process
evaluations can help policy-makers understand how programmes actually
work and monitor longer-term outcomes, as well as provide greater insights
into differences within the Maori population.
Summary
Maori development approaches provide a compelling record of experience
and innovation for New Zealand and other countries with indigenous and
ethnic minority populations. Among the most resonant themes are the desire
of Maori to succeed on their own terms within an increasingly integrated
and globalised world, the challenge of making policies inclusive, the
importance of weaving diversity and culture into policy design, and the
need to build on successes. We have much to gain from further study, analysis,
and discussion of these experiences-Maori and non-Maori alike.
 Table
of contents
Acknowledgments
Executive Summary
Whakarapopotonga Take
Chapter 1: Introduction
Annex 1: Indigenous Peoples in Comparison
Chapter 2: Welfare and Diversity, How are Maori Doing?
Annex 2: Measurement Challenges:Defining Ethnicity
Chapter 3: Policy Approaches to Maori Development
Chapter 4: Targeting and Tailoring
Chapter 5: Making Services Work for Maori, Education
and Health
Chapter 6: Findings for New Zealand and Abroad
Appendix A: Roma and Maori: Reflections on the Decade of
Romna Inclusion and the Hui Taumata 2005
Appendix B: Glossary of Terms
Bibliography
| Accounting for Diversity: Policy Design
and Maori Development in Aotearoa New Zealand |
ringoldd (691k) |
|
